The Tutee: Physics

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Wave Function | Bohrs Interpretation of Wave Function | definition and formula | thetutee

نشرت بواسطة:thetutee.com February 05, 2022 في Physics لاتوجد تعليقات

Wave function is a term that is
used in the quantum mechanics to describe the wave in a mathematical form. It
explains the quantum state in each quantum isolated system. Wave function is
denoted by a Greek letter psi Ψ. The value of a particle's wave function at a
particular place in space and time is proportional to the probability of the
particle being there at that moment. Ψ2 the square of wave function
is physically significant it gives us the probability density of a particle at
a given space and time.<o:p></o:p>

The wave function is a function
of degrees of freedom that correspond to a maximum set of commuting
measurements. The wave function may be deduced from the quantum state once such
a representation is chosen.<o:p></o:p>

As we know that Ψ is a wave
function and according to Bohr Ψ2 does not measure the particles
density at any point and gives the probability of finding that particle at that
point in each moment. <o:p></o:p>

Ψ2 = Ψ Ψ* <o:p></o:p>

Here, Ψ is the real wave function
and Ψ* is the imaginary wave function. The more exactly we can say that the
probability of the particles being present in the volume dxdydx is Ψ2
dxdydz, we can write it as,<o:p></o:p>

Ψ2 dxdydz =1<o:p></o:p>

Here, the wavefunction Ψ
satisfying this requirement is said to be normalized.<o:p></o:p>

Ψx2 dx = 1 is called
as one-dimensional normalization the wave equation.<o:p></o:p>

Ψx2 dxdy = 1 is called
as two-dimensional normalization the wave equation.<o:p></o:p>

Ψx2 dxdydz= 1 is
called as three-dimensional normalization the wave equation. <o:p></o:p>

The wavefunction Ψ has some
limitations to it, which are as follow<o:p></o:p>

1-   
Ψ must be finite to all the values of x, y and z<o:p></o:p>

2-   
Ψ must be single valued such as for each set of
values of x, y and z, y must have only one value.<o:p></o:p>

3-   
Ψ must be in all regions except where potential
energy is infinite<o:p></o:p>

4-   
Ψ is analytical it possesses continuous first
order derivative<o:p></o:p>

5-   
Ψ vanishes at the boundaries <o:p></o:p> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjVg3F8hQakBJxWe5W3KUUkNAZknTusrf6-z2ncVMZRg31063UZWtKyTVDxem4mI0t4VZT0PS1Itl6n9UqwJfmv1AXswai0sMNh8BIQG4mL2T5gKC9kXEdS3Hz59HO2u6ZPLx7DGgA1eRWOLlTWQSfzKJ8XaQRatjWk7gKxAykV0aVUNMcyWrVA2j4B=s1024" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="1024" height="236" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjVg3F8hQakBJxWe5W3KUUkNAZknTusrf6-z2ncVMZRg31063UZWtKyTVDxem4mI0t4VZT0PS1Itl6n9UqwJfmv1AXswai0sMNh8BIQG4mL2T5gKC9kXEdS3Hz59HO2u6ZPLx7DGgA1eRWOLlTWQSfzKJ8XaQRatjWk7gKxAykV0aVUNMcyWrVA2j4B=w354-h236" width="354" /></a></div>

Wave Function | Bohrs Interpretation of Wave Function | definition and formula | thetutee

Wave function is a term that is used in the quantum mechanics to describe the wave in a mathematical form. It explains the quantum state i... Read More »

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principal | Definition and Explanation | Equation and Formula | thetutee

نشرت بواسطة:thetutee.com January 26, 2022 في Physics لاتوجد تعليقات

Heisenberg uncertainty principle
is also called as uncertainty principle or the indeterminacy principle. Werner Heisenberg
was a German physicist he presented his hypothesis in 1927. According to his
theory he said that the position and the velocity of the object cannot be
measured accurately at the same time. According to him this is also applicable
for the subatomic level such as for electron, protons, and neutrons that we
cannot measure the position of these subatomic particles and the velocity at
the same time. We can either find the position or the exact speed at a certain
fixed time. <o:p></o:p>

When we observe in our daily
life, for example we can calculate the velocity of a truck or a bus and the
position. The uncertainty is too small that we cannot observe. The full rule
states that the product of position and velocity uncertainties must be equal to
or larger than a small physical amount, or constant (h/(4π), where h is Planck's
constant, or approximately 6.6 ×1034
joule-second). the product becomes significant for atoms and subatomic
particles with extremely small masses.<o:p></o:p>

This finding originates from the
close connection in nature between particles and waves in the world of
subatomic dimensions and has nothing to do with shortcomings in the measurement
devices, procedure, or viewer. Due to the dual nature of the light the
uncertainty principle arises. As from the duality of the light we know that
every particle has a wave property with it and every wave exhibits the property
of a particle as well. <o:p></o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">FORMULA, EQUATION AND APPLICATION
</h3><o:p></o:p>

If, Δx is the error in position measurement and Δp denotes the error in
momentum measurement, then<o:p></o:p>

ΔX×Δp
≥ h/4π

Because momentum is equal to mv, Heisenberg's
uncertainty principal formula may be expressed as-<o:p></o:p>

ΔX×Δmv ≥ h/4π

where, we assume mass to be constant, and Δv to be the uncertainty in
the measurement of the velocity.<o:p></o:p>

ΔX×Δv ≥h/4πm

When a quantity's location or momentum is accurately
measured, it immediately suggests a higher level of uncertainty (error) in the
measurement of the other quantity.<o:p></o:p>

ΔX×Δv≥6.626×10-34 / 4×3.14×9.11×10-31<o:p></o:p>

= 10-4 m2 s-1<o:p></o:p>

If the electron's location is properly recorded to its
size (10-10m), the velocity measurement error will be equivalent to or greater
than 106m or 1000km.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

The Heisenberg principle only applies to dual-natured
tiny particles, not to a macroscopic particle with a very small wave nature.<o:p></o:p> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhJGwFUmpz8P1mUTbsPJcUoljt69_lUDw2Nqc2Dy4BRqVTelluUyCt9IZYoTU3X-Zxl4oAo1Tz-lCTyqv6es3U_i-HSWsBW5r608A2dJzKkDS43TJUKtJT1h1YMBtXt_lhcwde1grKC_VfkmMWe8-RrA2p4lEARVfsi24I4OA72g62sQerbcUoFboes=s1024" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="1024" height="233" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhJGwFUmpz8P1mUTbsPJcUoljt69_lUDw2Nqc2Dy4BRqVTelluUyCt9IZYoTU3X-Zxl4oAo1Tz-lCTyqv6es3U_i-HSWsBW5r608A2dJzKkDS43TJUKtJT1h1YMBtXt_lhcwde1grKC_VfkmMWe8-RrA2p4lEARVfsi24I4OA72g62sQerbcUoFboes=w350-h233" width="350" /></a></div>

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principal | Definition and Explanation | Equation and Formula | thetutee

Heisenberg uncertainty principle is also called as uncertainty principle or the indeterminacy principle. Werner Heisenberg was a German ph... Read More »

De Broglie's Hypothesis | Definition | Explanation | De Broglie's Formula | thetutee

نشرت بواسطة:thetutee.com January 14, 2022 في Physics لاتوجد تعليقات

De Broglie hypothesis says that
all matter has both particle and wave nature. The wave nature of a particle is
quantified by de Broglie wavelength defined as λ=h/p where  “p”  is
the momentum of the particle. This was called a hypothesis because there was no
evidence for it when it was proposed, only analogies with existing theories.
(The wavelength-momentum relation holds exactly for photons.) <o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

The de-Broglie's hypothesis
states that since a light, or any other electromagnetic wave, can also exhibit
the properties of a particle, similarly, a particle should also exhibit the
properties of a wave, and that those two natures are interchangeable if certain
physical conditions exist to allow that change.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

This hypothesis has been proved
to be true so far, as many experiments on particles showing wave properties
have shown that dual nature to exist, like electrons when passed through a
double slit on a screen, get deposited on a screen opposite to the slits with
different linear densities, and with alternate regions of high and low
intensities of deposition, in accordance with the two-slit interference
phenomena observed in the case of light waves, and which can only be possible
if the electron exhibits some kind of wave nature when it strikes the two slits,
undergoing constructive and destructive interference while remaining in that
state, and then striking the screen as a particle again.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

Historically, de Broglie
hypothesis was the next step in quantum theory after Planck, Einstein, and
Bohr.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<ul><li>In 1900, Max Planck introduced
the notion that radiation is quantized to derive the black body radiation
spectrum.</li></ul><div> </div><ul><li>In 1905, Albert Einstein used
Planck's idea to explain photoelectric effect, which led to wide acceptance of
the quantum nature of radiation.</li></ul><div> </div><ul><li>In 1913, Niels Bohr used
quantization of radiation along with the Bohr hypothesis (that the angular
momentum of electrons is quantized) to correctly predict the line spectrum of
hydrogen atom and explain.</li></ul><div> </div><ul><li>In 1923, Lois de Broglie took
this idea further and proposed that matter has wave nature as radiation has
particle nature.</li></ul><div> </div><o:p></o:p>

<o:p></o:p>

Bohr hypothesis comes as an
immediate consequence of de Broglie hypothesis - angular momentum must be
conserved if an electron in an atom is seen as a wave going in circles around a
nucleus such that the electron wave interferes constructively everywhere in the
orbit.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

In 1926 Erwin Schrödinger
published the Schrödinger equation which generalized de Broglie's concept of
matter waves and put them in a more robust theoretical footing.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

The direct experimental
confirmation came in 1927 when Clinton Davisson and Listor Germer and
independently, GP Thomson observed electron diffraction.<o:p></o:p>

According to planks wave equation
energy is directly proportional to the frequency,<o:p></o:p>

E α υ<o:p></o:p>

E = hυ          where, h = 6.63×10-34 Js<o:p></o:p>

So according to Einstein mass and
energy are the manifestation of the same thing<o:p></o:p>

E = mc2      <o:p></o:p>

So, we can write by combing both
equations,<o:p></o:p>

hυ = mc2             (here c = 3.0 × 108 m/s)<o:p></o:p>

as, υ = c/λ <o:p></o:p>

h c/λ = mc2<o:p></o:p>

λ = hc/ mc2<o:p></o:p>

λ = h/mc      (Equation for light)<o:p></o:p>

λ = h/mv      (Equation for matter) here v = velocity
of the light, this equation is also known as de Broglie’s equation<o:p></o:p>

λ = 1/mv      (where, mv = momentum)<o:p></o:p>

From here we can deduce that the
greater the mass of an object the lesser will be its wavelength.<o:p></o:p> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiHxnXe07J65TcC5PaqblFik2YVAoqorJcpJZsJHympAqaXKJEyDVtP80Avg-z6nqR8DoexPWpn_rsEanSO2-bjRCZx_iFoXvbUV3fsVJJkb__tAzd5V5pr1fvUo6ACZ3RZRo6MQMsQ_avos3OY3spfPVYrITQ7t-C2hWspb4ajOtkUenuH6l_0RyVk=s1024" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="1024" height="249" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiHxnXe07J65TcC5PaqblFik2YVAoqorJcpJZsJHympAqaXKJEyDVtP80Avg-z6nqR8DoexPWpn_rsEanSO2-bjRCZx_iFoXvbUV3fsVJJkb__tAzd5V5pr1fvUo6ACZ3RZRo6MQMsQ_avos3OY3spfPVYrITQ7t-C2hWspb4ajOtkUenuH6l_0RyVk=w373-h249" width="373" /></a></div>

De Broglie's Hypothesis | Definition | Explanation | De Broglie's Formula | thetutee

De Broglie hypothesis says that all matter has both particle and wave nature. The wave nature of a particle is quantified by de Broglie wa... Read More »

Dual Nature of matter | Dual nature of Light | Wave and Particle Nature | Definition and Explanation | thetutee

نشرت بواسطة:thetutee.com January 12, 2022 في Physics لاتوجد تعليقات

Since the discovery of the dual
nature of the matter or the light science has been transformed into a new
level. The understanding of nature of matter has deepened further. Now we can
easily say that everything is a wave as well as a particle.<o:p></o:p>

De Broglie proposed the theory of
the dual nature of the light. He said that matter can have both particle and
the wave nature. <o:p></o:p>

According to planks wave equation
energy is directly proportional to the frequency,<o:p></o:p>

E α
υ<o:p></o:p>

E = hυ          where, h = 6.63×10-34 Js<o:p></o:p>

So
according to Einstein mass and energy are the manifestation of the same thing<o:p></o:p>

E = mc2      <o:p></o:p>

So, we
can write by combing both equations,<o:p></o:p>

hυ = mc2          
  (here c = 3.0 × 108 m/s)<o:p></o:p>

as, υ = c/λ
<o:p></o:p>

h c/λ = mc2<o:p></o:p>

λ = hc/ mc2<o:p></o:p>

λ = h/mc      (Equation
for light)<o:p></o:p>

λ = h/mv      (Equation for matter) here v = velocity of
the light, this equation is also known as de Broglie’s equation<o:p></o:p>

λ = 1/mv      (where, mv
= momentum)<o:p></o:p>

From here we can deduce that the greater the mass of an
object the lesser will be its wavelength. <o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p><o:p> </o:p>

<o:p> </o:p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEh6wEFQCPZknZlZXBYtBD9NJ8D7yitiWlLIkE_TgIs45QsY-hdpdQNoloVL_LknX0nwOMJUmIoOKolVhSolDuX6Nsyv_OSTS8mQRhOJjwgWgZjtplxWrFqD6G-yb7jRwXqqgVjTSMmboevHPWalA2XMsen59OZhTR1XC6PXc0GW1vxfBPZ0LDxwlANu=s1024" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="1024" height="253" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEh6wEFQCPZknZlZXBYtBD9NJ8D7yitiWlLIkE_TgIs45QsY-hdpdQNoloVL_LknX0nwOMJUmIoOKolVhSolDuX6Nsyv_OSTS8mQRhOJjwgWgZjtplxWrFqD6G-yb7jRwXqqgVjTSMmboevHPWalA2XMsen59OZhTR1XC6PXc0GW1vxfBPZ0LDxwlANu=w380-h253" width="380" /></a></div>

<o:p> </o:p>

Dual Nature of matter | Dual nature of Light | Wave and Particle Nature | Definition and Explanation | thetutee

Since the discovery of the dual nature of the matter or the light science has been transformed into a new level. The understanding of natu... Read More »

Bohr's Atomic Model | Definition | Postulates | Explanation | thetutee

نشرت بواسطة:thetutee.com January 08, 2022 في Chemistry, Physics لاتوجد تعليقات

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">Introduction</h3>Neil Bohr was a Danish physicist
who put forward a theory in 1913 regarding the atomic structure of the atom
known as the Bohr’s atomic model. His ideas were quite different from the
classical model in fact, he was one of the first scientist to use the quantum
model. In his experiment he used the Hydrogen atom (Z= 1) to describe the
atomic structure of the atom.<o:p></o:p>

Once Einstein extended planks idea
of energy quantization to the electromagnetic radiation other physicist made
the similar strides. Neil Bohr was constantly searching for the exact structure
of the atom. In his mind he constantly faces following questions.<o:p></o:p>

If an <a href="https://www.thetutee.com/2021/11/what-is-atom.html">atom</a> has positively charged
protons and negatively charged electrons, why are they stable? Why don’t they
collide with each other despite being positively charged? What are these
emission spectra lines that we see of different types of elements and why they
emit different colors?<o:p></o:p> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjQj9Ag25GDqKVC-tEHNTlu95mA4S28GJQ3DoxSIfLcQvAEZsw6tAunnsWzWEdZXDa4PVq8rN7aQZamZU0-g9rrR7EjuJChkKj6WCdRazfsOkWe5lJZhbVn_4JRyTyi6bLzYtLsqKOtM2q0LWtiEKR8vuNowbmkermd6OUYDYA8gfWMnTWYUXtA2rOl=s1024" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="1024" height="237" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjQj9Ag25GDqKVC-tEHNTlu95mA4S28GJQ3DoxSIfLcQvAEZsw6tAunnsWzWEdZXDa4PVq8rN7aQZamZU0-g9rrR7EjuJChkKj6WCdRazfsOkWe5lJZhbVn_4JRyTyi6bLzYtLsqKOtM2q0LWtiEKR8vuNowbmkermd6OUYDYA8gfWMnTWYUXtA2rOl=w356-h237" width="356" /></a></div>

Bohr then tried to answer this
question with his model extending the idea of energy quantization and said that
potential energy of electron in the Hydrogen atom is also quantized. The
postulates of his model are as follows.<o:p></o:p>

<ul><li>The electrons revolve around the
nucleus in a fix energy level which are called as shells.</li><li>He said that each electron in
different energy levels have different energies. An electron can move from one
energy level to another energy level when it absorbs or emit photon. ΔEelectron = Ephoton    </li></ul><o:p></o:p>

OR  ΔE = hf = Ei − Ef<o:p></o:p>

<ul><li>The energy levels are represented by integers like (n = 1,
2, 3….). The shells are also be named as (K, L, M…), the lowest energy level is
also called as ground state.</li><li>He also put forward the mathematical formula for Angular
momentum,</li></ul>

<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><img height="46" src="file:///C:/Users/HP/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.png" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="67" /><o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

ℓ = angular momentum<o:p></o:p>

n = principal quantum number<o:p></o:p>

h = Planck’s constant<o:p></o:p>

π = 3.14 <o:p></o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">LIMITATIONS OF THE BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL</h3>

<ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Because it considers electrons to have both a known radius
and orbit, it infringes the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.</li></ul><div> </div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>The Bohr Model gives an inaccurate value for the orbital
angular momentum of the lowest energy state.</li></ul><div> </div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>It has a terrible track record when it comes to predicting
the spectra of heavier elements.</li></ul>

<o:p> </o:p>

<ul><li>The relative intensities of spectral lines are not
predicted.</li></ul>

<o:p> </o:p>

<ul><li>Fine and hyperfine structure in spectral lines is not
explained</li></ul>

<o:p> </o:p>

<ul><li>It doesn't account for the Zeeman Effect.</li></ul><div> </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjRWvVeNQLLIWsrNK9dehSxRyM10ZU7fZwERXl6ZlNAbF6IusH7JnhcS1nJ2deDuyitJun1sB33OEDBC2d9WivHcO8j6y68L7iKuSM_KUUfKXAMVWFu6rNRKfX2L4JGfgU3ny2YieuyfIfcX7YkUkvzodYuQVT0uiU7LAs88_DDoHF75bJ_4JSvckRa=s1024" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="1024" height="234" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjRWvVeNQLLIWsrNK9dehSxRyM10ZU7fZwERXl6ZlNAbF6IusH7JnhcS1nJ2deDuyitJun1sB33OEDBC2d9WivHcO8j6y68L7iKuSM_KUUfKXAMVWFu6rNRKfX2L4JGfgU3ny2YieuyfIfcX7YkUkvzodYuQVT0uiU7LAs88_DDoHF75bJ_4JSvckRa=w351-h234" width="351" /></a></div> <div> </div>

<o:p> </o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

Bohr's Atomic Model | Definition | Postulates | Explanation | thetutee

Introduction Neil Bohr was a Danish physicist who put forward a theory in 1913 regarding the atomic structure of the atom known as the Boh... Read More »

Photoelectric Effect | Definition | Explanation | Application | thetutee |

نشرت بواسطة:thetutee.com January 05, 2022 في Chemistry, Physics 2 تعليقات

In the past scientists have always felt difficult to
predict the nature of the light and the interaction of the light with the
matter. When the light interacts with the matter it releases the charge particles,
such as in the case of metals are electron. The radiant energy might be x-rays,
gamma rays, radio waves or infrared waves. The materials may be solid, liquid
even it can be gas. <o:p></o:p>

In 1905 Albert Einstein proposed a theory which
finally solved the mystery about the nature of the light being either particle
or the wave. He proposed that depending upon the frequency each wave has a fix
amount of energy called quanta, and these packets of energy are not continuous
but are discrete. The photons carry energy E = hf where, “h” is the universal
constant and “f” is the frequency of the photon. The mathematical equation can
be written as E = hc/λ where, “c” is the speed of the
light and “λ” is the wavelength of the photon. Form this equation we can
predict that the energy of the photon is inversely proportional to its
wavelength.<o:p></o:p> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhPQMF3j3sDP2tQXRbfkD06GybTV5ONMjcWxPXZix_Z-woEJaHPd8-w_bw17T1DUX8wNffv7k2GTTlnXM8YYjYPxCnMrkNrOgvMOlabcpZMX0r3u5-1mgHYL_NjeF_NigABFQYF_9HWyU3rTDQQYW_K9e5fGDoRFFAd8TRmHznEF0Q2kstLZ5saWQq2=s1024" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="1024" height="233" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhPQMF3j3sDP2tQXRbfkD06GybTV5ONMjcWxPXZix_Z-woEJaHPd8-w_bw17T1DUX8wNffv7k2GTTlnXM8YYjYPxCnMrkNrOgvMOlabcpZMX0r3u5-1mgHYL_NjeF_NigABFQYF_9HWyU3rTDQQYW_K9e5fGDoRFFAd8TRmHznEF0Q2kstLZ5saWQq2=w350-h233" width="350" /></a></div>

Einstein predicted that a photon would pass through a
substance and transmit its energy to an electron. The kinetic energy of the
electron would decrease by an amount called the work function (like the
electronic work function) as it moved through the metal at high speed and
eventually emerged from the material. The work function represents the energy
required for the electron to escape the metal. This argument led Einstein to
the photoelectric equation Ek = hf, where Ek is the highest kinetic energy of
the excited electron, and hf is the kinetic energy of the expelled electron.<o:p></o:p>

The experimental results were not accepted that time
by many researchers but with the passage of time new experiments proved that
Einstein theory was correct. In 1921 Einstein was awarded Nobel prize in
physics for explaining the complete process of the photoelectric effect.
According to the quantum principles, the electron occurs in the specific
electronic configuration.<o:p></o:p>

The highest level of band energy occupied by the
electron is the valence band, the electrical conductivity depends upon the
number of electrons in the valence band. In materials like metal (conductors)
almost half of is valence band is filled with electrons. These electron in the
metal can move form one atom to another atom while carrying current. While in insulators such as glass and rubbers the
valence band is filled and their id not enough space for the electrons to move
freely.

While in the case of semiconductors the valence band
is filled with electron, but a little amount of energy is required for the
electron to excite them and move them to the next band which is called as
conduction band and here it is comparatively free. The bandgap energy is
measured in electron volts.<o:p></o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">APPLICATIONS</h3>

Using photoelectric effect we can make devices of our
own desire, using the band gaps and the light intensity we can produce current
with a high response time. Photodiodes and photoelectric cells are some common
applications. Phototubes have now been phased out in favor of
semiconductor-based photodiodes, which can detect light, quantify its
intensity, operate other devices in response to illumination, and convert light
to electrical energy. <o:p></o:p>

These electronics operate at low voltages, like their
bandgaps, and are utilized in a variety of applications including industrial
process control, pollution monitoring, light detection in fiber optic
communication systems, photovoltaic cells, scanning, and many more.

Photoelectric Effect | Definition | Explanation | Application | thetutee |

In the past scientists have always felt difficult to predict the nature of the light and the interaction of the light with the matter. When ... Read More »

What is Electromagnetic Spectrum | Equation | Diagram | Uses | thetutee |

نشرت بواسطة:thetutee.com December 30, 2021 في Chemistry, Physics 2 تعليقات

<h2 style="text-align: justify;">Electromagnetic Spectrum</h2><o:p></o:p>

Electromagnetic waves are type of
waves which do not need any medium to travel through the space. They travel
equal to the speed of light. Electromagnetic waves consist of different
wavelength ranges and different frequencies. Visible light itself consist of
seven different colors, Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red. All
the components of the electromagnetic waves behave differently in the process
of absorption, transmission, and emission. There are not any precise boundaries
between the components of the EMW. The separation of the components according
to the wavelength is called as Electromagnetic Spectrum. <o:p></o:p> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEi6Pn6C53F79Sy8lRc9-qw4cPawan9PMAKCC1ixsGpmR-0Ln_rOlp1aivxHgS06nSwgju8ikee5yEfYKsGZj_zgauOX09F0CXLt-3FdaeGwzDKmcAKdnhZfEqIPNGVIf95c9HWplLTAiM-QH7L615MVbsVFXJC11MuzoUlV1RfCQCYM031CAjurHa7n=s1024" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="1024" height="253" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEi6Pn6C53F79Sy8lRc9-qw4cPawan9PMAKCC1ixsGpmR-0Ln_rOlp1aivxHgS06nSwgju8ikee5yEfYKsGZj_zgauOX09F0CXLt-3FdaeGwzDKmcAKdnhZfEqIPNGVIf95c9HWplLTAiM-QH7L615MVbsVFXJC11MuzoUlV1RfCQCYM031CAjurHa7n=w380-h253" width="380" /></a></div>

Following are the components of
Electromagnetic waves according to the wavelength lambda(λ).<o:p></o:p>

1-   
Radio waves (1to1000m) used to broadcast radio
and television.<o:p></o:p>

2-   
Microwaves (10-4 to1 nm) used in
cooking, radar system, telephones, and other signal purposes.<o:p></o:p>

3-   
 Infrared
waves (10-4 to 10-6 nm) used in transmitting heat from
sun, fire, and radiators. <o:p></o:p>

4-   
Visible region (400 to 700 nm) makes the things
visible for us.<o:p></o:p>

5-   
Ultraviolet region (10-8nm) it can be
absorbed by the skin and can be used in the florescent tubes.<o:p></o:p>

6-   
X- rays (10-10 nm) used to get an
idea or view the inside of an object or a body such as human.<o:p></o:p>

When we see
further deep into the visible region, it is further divided into the seven
colors and the regions are as follows.<o:p></o:p>

1-   
Violet region (400 – 420 nm)<o:p></o:p>

2-   
Indigo (420 – 440 nm)<o:p></o:p>

3-   
Blue (440 – 490 nm)<o:p></o:p>

4-   
Green (490 – 570 nm)<o:p></o:p>

5-   
Yellow (570 – 585 nm)<o:p></o:p>

6-   
Orange (585 – 620 nm)<o:p></o:p>

7-   
Red (620 – 780 nm) <o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

Gamma rays have
the highest amount of energy which is followed by x-rays. Wavelength and energy
are inversely proportional to eachother.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<o:p></o:p>

wavelength
lambda(λ) = c / f<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

Where, c is the
speed of light (3×108
m/s), and “f” is frequency.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

Wavelength is
defined as the two successive crests or troughs. We can find the relation of
any wavelength, mass, and momentum through de Broglie’s equation.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<o:p></o:p>

What is Electromagnetic Spectrum | Equation | Diagram | Uses | thetutee |

Electromagnetic Spectrum Electromagnetic waves are type of waves which do not need any medium to travel through the space. They travel equ... Read More »

What is Mole in Chemistry? | Chemistry | Physics | thetutee |

نشرت بواسطة:thetutee.com December 01, 2021 في Chemistry, Physics لاتوجد تعليقات

A mole is a common scientific unit for measuring significant amounts of extremely small things such as atoms, molecules, or other designated particles in chemistry. <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjaFiO3iOop3l_IIx9TiEMnoSX0knP2RgQ2EnjdmVCjfgqUQc_7q5WlcuEoYo9-Deo5MQ3VhEFkX2J8t5v8EZwDxEezIjIKyxHapuT5t6QTfTFmfnWZ9-jOh9pyFkPC2veuXNZq51-LLT6vE6YyvmhKWVGq7emKJzNSPw3MPUBY39s81pwd0oCRGf97=s1024" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="1024" height="250" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjaFiO3iOop3l_IIx9TiEMnoSX0knP2RgQ2EnjdmVCjfgqUQc_7q5WlcuEoYo9-Deo5MQ3VhEFkX2J8t5v8EZwDxEezIjIKyxHapuT5t6QTfTFmfnWZ9-jOh9pyFkPC2veuXNZq51-LLT6vE6YyvmhKWVGq7emKJzNSPw3MPUBY39s81pwd0oCRGf97=w405-h250" width="405" /></a></div> The mole signifies 6.02214076× 1023 units, which is an exceptionally huge quantity. The mole was established by the General Conference on Weights and Measures as this quantity for the International System of Units (SI) as of May 20, 2019. The mole was traditionally defined as the number of atoms contained in 12 grammes of carbon-12, as determined experimentally. In honour of the Italian physicist Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856), the number of units in a mole is also known as Avogadro's number or Avogadro's constant. Equal volumes of gases under the same circumstances contain the same number of molecules, according to Avogadro, a principle that proved beneficial in estimating atomic and molecular weights and gave rise to the idea of the mole. (For further information, see Avogadro's law.) For all substances, the number of atoms or other particles in a mole is the same. The mass of an element is linked to the mole in the following way: A mole of carbon-12 atoms is made up of 6.02214076× 1023  atoms and weighs 12 grammes. In instance, one mole of oxygen has the same number of atoms as carbon-12 by definition, but it weighs 15.999 kilos. As a result, oxygen has a larger mass than carbon. This logic may also be used to calculate molecule or formula weights. On a macroscopic level, the idea of the mole allows to put quantitative information about what happens in a chemical equation. Two moles of water are converted into two moles of molecular hydrogen and one mole of molecular oxygen in the chemical reaction 2H2O O2 + 2H2. The mole can be used to quantify the amounts involved in chemical processes and to establish the simplest formula of a molecule. The related idea of molarity is important when dealing with reactions that take place in solutions. The amount of moles of a solute in a litre of solution is known as molarity (M).

What is Mole in Chemistry? | Chemistry | Physics | thetutee |

A mole is a common scientific unit for measuring significant amounts of extremely small things such as atoms, molecules, or other designate... Read More »

What is an atom?

نشرت بواسطة:thetutee.com November 09, 2021 في Chemistry, Physics لاتوجد تعليقات

An atom is the simplest unit of ordinary matter that forms a
chemical element. Atoms
that are neutral or ionized make up every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Atoms
are incredibly tiny, measuring around 100 picometers in diameter. Due to
quantum phenomena, it is impossible to precisely anticipate their behavior
using traditional physics. <o:p></o:p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjd-v51YY9mRLRtiK3bBvbK_uNnY5pE5mLHiWSLycIRuHK2qZ6ZNzekEEz7v3gwl7-vRgEU2QTuJRSSP54TNNp0ngiAHeFain09wSJNG8Bk3JJDIN5jwJ8hUxe9v0Ic46kewtZmgvRjqSk/" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="1024" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjd-v51YY9mRLRtiK3bBvbK_uNnY5pE5mLHiWSLycIRuHK2qZ6ZNzekEEz7v3gwl7-vRgEU2QTuJRSSP54TNNp0ngiAHeFain09wSJNG8Bk3JJDIN5jwJ8hUxe9v0Ic46kewtZmgvRjqSk/" width="320" /></a></div> </div><h3 style="text-align: justify;">Properties</h3>

It has three basics subatomic particles, protons, neutrons,
and electrons. Proton is positively charged; neutron has no charge and electron
has negatively charge. The central part is known as nucleus which is made up of
protons and neutrons. Electrons revolve around them, and the number of protons
and electrons are always equal in a neutral atom.  When an atom contains more or fewer electrons
than protons, it has a negative or positive net charge, and these atoms are
known as ions. The path on which electron revolve around the around the nucleus
is called orbit/<a href="https://sciencebytesla.blogspot.com/2021/11/energy-levels-and-shells.html">shell or energy levels</a>. <o:p></o:p>

The electromagnetic force attracts an atom's electrons to its
protons in the atomic nucleus. The nuclear force attracts protons and neutrons
in the nucleus to each other. The electromagnetic force that repels positively
charged protons from one another is frequently stronger than this force. Under
some conditions, the electromagnetic force repelling the nuclear force gets
greater. The nucleus divides in this situation, leaving behind several
components. This is a type of nuclear fission.<o:p></o:p>

The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus
that determines the chemical element the atom belongs to. Copper, for example,
is any atom with 29 protons. The number of neutrons in an element determines
its isotope. Chemical bonds allow atoms to join with one or more other atoms to
create chemical compounds such as molecules or crystals. Most of the physical
changes observed in nature are due to atoms' capacity to associate and
disassociate. Chemistry is the branch of science that investigates these
changes.

Any two atoms having the same number of protons in their nuclei
are defined as belonging to the same chemical element. Different isotopes of
the same element have the same number of protons but a different number of
neutrons. For example, all hydrogen atoms have one proton, but there are
isotopes with no neutrons (hydrogen-1, also known as protium), one neutron
(deuterium), two neutrons (tritium), and more than two neutrons (tritium). From
the single-proton element hydrogen through the 118-proton element Oganesson,
the known elements constitute a series of atomic numbers. All known isotopes of elements with
atomic numbers greater than 82 are radioactive, while element 83 (bismuth) has
such little radioactivity that it is essentially unnoticeable.<o:p></o:p>

The ratio of protons to neutrons, as well as the existence of
specific "magic numbers" of neutrons or protons that represent closed
and full quantum shells, impact isotope stability. Within the shell model of
the nucleus, these quantum shells correspond to a set of energy levels; filled
shells, such as the filled shell of 50 protons for tin, bestow remarkable
stability on the nuclide. Only four nuclides (hydrogen-2 (deuterium),
lithium-6, boron-10, and nitrogen-14) contain an odd number of protons and
neutrons among the 252 known stable nuclides.<o:p></o:p>

Because of the nature of quantum mechanics, no single image
has been completely satisfactory for visualizing the atom's various
characteristics, forcing physicists to explain distinct features using
complementary pictures of the atom. The electrons in an atom behave like
particles orbiting the nucleus in some ways. In others, the electrons act like
waves around the nucleus that are locked in place. Orbitals are wave patterns
that explain the dispersion of individual electrons. These orbital features
have a significant impact on an atom's behavior, and orbital groups known as
shells dictate an atom's chemical properties.<o:p></o:p>

Atomic mass is measured in terms of the atomic mass
unit(amu), which is equal to 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Because the
mass of an atom is made up of the mass of the nucleus plus the mass of the
electrons, the atomic mass unit differs from the mass of a proton or neutron.<o:p></o:p>

An atom is the simplest unit of ordinary matter that forms a chemical element. Atoms that are neutral or ionized make up every solid, liq... Read More »

Nobel Prize in Physics 2021

نشرت بواسطة:thetutee.com November 08, 2021 في Physics لاتوجد تعليقات

Nobel Prize in Physics 2021<o:p></o:p>

The Nobel
Prize in Physics 2021 was split in half, with one half going to Syukuro Manabe
and Klaus Hasselmann "for the physical modelling of Earth's climate,
quantifying variability, and satisfactorily foretelling global warming,"
and the other half going to Giorgio Parisi "for the discovery of the interplay
of disorder and fluctuations in physical systems from atomic to planetary
scales."<o:p></o:p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/nobel-winners-featured.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="450" data-original-width="800" height="389" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/nobel-winners-featured.jpg" width="693" /></a></div>

Syukuro
Manabe of Princeton University, USA, Klaus Hasselmann of Max Planck Institute
for Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany and Giorgio Parisi and Sapienza of University
of Rome, Italy.<o:p></o:p>

This year's Nobel Prize in Physics is
shared by three Laureates for their research into chaotic and seemingly random
occurrences. Syukuro Manabe and Klaus Hasselmann set the groundwork for our
understanding of the Earth's climate and its impact on humans. Giorgio Parisi
is honored for his groundbreaking advances to disorganized materials and random
processes theory.<o:p></o:p>

Complex
systems are hard to comprehend since they are characterized by unpredictability
and chaos. This year's Prize honors novel approaches to defining and
forecasting their long-term behavior. The Earth's climate is a complicated system that is critical
to humanity. Increased quantities of atmospheric carbon dioxide contribute to
higher temperatures at the Earth's surface, according to Syukuro Manabe. He was
the first to investigate the interplay between radiation balance and vertical
air mass movement in the 1960s, and he spearheaded the creation of physical
models of the Earth's climate. His work set the groundwork for the current
generation of climate models.<o:p></o:p>

Klaus
Hasselmann constructed a model that relates climate and weather ten years
later, solving the question of how climate models can be trustworthy given the
fact that weather is unpredictable and turbulent. He also devised ways for recognizing
precise indications, or fingerprints, that both natural and human-caused
climate change leave behind. His methods have been used to demonstrate that the
rising temperature in the atmosphere is caused by human greenhouse gas
emissions.<o:p></o:p>

Giorgio
Parisi identified hidden patterns in chaotic complex materials in the early
1980s. His contributions to the theory of complex systems are among the most
significant. They enable us to comprehend and characterize a wide range of
seemingly random materials and occurrences, not just in physics but also in
fields as diverse as mathematics, biology, neurobiology, and algorithms.<o:p></o:p>

"This
year's results show that our understanding of the climate is built on a strong
scientific foundation, based on a comprehensive study of observations."
“All of this year's Nobel Laureates have helped us learn more about the nature
and development of complex physical systems,” says Thors Hans Hansson, chair of
the Nobel Committee for Physics.<o:p></o:p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjpSeH16_tl7Yvmzr0UsWcxJtLXqb1gZHka76s44jZVrRP8YfQz6i5TgxihGmFIc12gNlwJIEb6u75HglfvqP47BTrzAWqVftaXIntrzRGfUUHQS4xFyfTy66vpcA-Vr8i9rxWZLbGo-NYDmeVpOA2GrTVQjSp6hrHFOK6MRxgBDvUMCv4ggP704VBj=s1823" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1823" data-original-width="1241" height="517" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjpSeH16_tl7Yvmzr0UsWcxJtLXqb1gZHka76s44jZVrRP8YfQz6i5TgxihGmFIc12gNlwJIEb6u75HglfvqP47BTrzAWqVftaXIntrzRGfUUHQS4xFyfTy66vpcA-Vr8i9rxWZLbGo-NYDmeVpOA2GrTVQjSp6hrHFOK6MRxgBDvUMCv4ggP704VBj=w499-h517" width="499" /></a></div>

Nobel Prize in Physics 2021 The Nobel Prize in Physics 2021 was split in half, with one half going to Syukuro Manabe and Klaus Hasselman... Read More »