The Tutee: Chemistry

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Definition of Chemistry | Types and Branches of Chemistry | THETUTEE

نشرت بواسطة:thetutee.com January 10, 2023 في Chemistry لاتوجد تعليقات

<h2 style="text-align: justify;">Chemistry</h2>Chemistry is the scientific discipline that studies the properties and behavior of matter. It is concerned with the atomic and molecular structure of substances, their composition and the changes they undergo during reactions. Chemists use a variety of tools and techniques to study and manipulate matter, including chemical reactions, spectroscopy, and crystallography. The study of chemistry has applications in many fields, including medicine, materials science, environmental science, and energy production. <h3 style="text-align: justify;">Branches Of Chemistry </h3>There are several branches of chemistry, each of which focuses on a specific aspect of the field. Here are a few examples: <div style="text-align: justify;">Organic chemistry: This branch of chemistry deals with the study of carbon-containing compounds, including their synthesis, structure, and properties.</div> Inorganic chemistry: This branch of chemistry focuses on the study of compounds that do not contain carbon, including metals and their compounds. Physical chemistry: This branch of chemistry combines the principles of physics and chemistry to study the behavior of matter at the atomic and molecular level. Analytical chemistry: This branch of chemistry involves the development and use of techniques to identify and quantify the chemical components of a sample. Biochemistry: This branch of chemistry focuses on the chemical processes that occur within living organisms, including the synthesis and metabolism of biomolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. Environmental chemistry: This branch of chemistry studies the chemical reactions and processes that occur in the environment, including those that affect air, water, and soil quality. Materials chemistry: This branch of chemistry deals with the synthesis and characterization of new materials, including metals, ceramics, and polymers.

Definition of Chemistry | Types and Branches of Chemistry | THETUTEE

Chemistry Chemistry is the scientific discipline that studies the properties and behavior of matter. It is concerned with the atomic and mol... Read More »

Introduction To Atom | Magnetic Properties of Atom | Valency of Atom

نشرت بواسطة:thetutee.com January 10, 2023 في Chemistry لاتوجد تعليقات

<h2 style="text-align: justify;">Introduction To Atom</h2>Atoms are the basic units of matter and the defining structure of elements. The term "atom" comes from the Greek word for indivisible, because it was once thought that atoms were the smallest things in the universe and could not be divided. However, we now know that atoms are made up of even smaller particles called subatomic particles. These particles are the protons, neutrons, and electrons that make up the structure of an atom. The protons and neutrons are located in the center of the atom, called the nucleus. The number of protons in an atom's nucleus determines what element it is. For example, all carbon atoms have 6 protons in their nucleus. The number of neutrons in an atom's nucleus can vary, but the number of protons and neutrons combined is called the atomic mass of the element. The electrons are located in a cloud outside the nucleus and are much lighter than the protons and neutrons. The number of electrons in an atom is usually the same as the number of protons, which gives the atom a net electrical charge of zero. The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called its electron configuration. The subatomic particles of an atom are held together by the strong nuclear force, which is a fundamental force of nature that acts between the protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The strong nuclear force is what holds the nucleus together and prevents the protons from repelling each other due to their positive charge. The electrons are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the electromagnetic force, which is another fundamental force of nature. The electromagnetic force is what gives atoms their chemical properties, as it determines how the electrons are arranged and how they interact with other atoms. The study of atoms and their subatomic particles is called atomic physics. Atomic physics has played a crucial role in the development of many important technologies, including the development of nuclear weapons, nuclear power, and semiconductor devices. One of the key discoveries in atomic physics was the development of quantum mechanics, which is a theory that explains the behavior of subatomic particles. Quantum mechanics allows us to understand how atoms and subatomic particles behave and interact with each other on a very small scale. Another important discovery in atomic physics was the development of the periodic table of elements. The periodic table is a chart that organizes the elements based on their atomic structure and properties. It allows us to predict the properties of new elements and to understand the chemical behavior of different elements. In conclusion, atoms are the basic units of matter and are made up of subatomic particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons. The protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus, while the electrons are located in a cloud outside the nucleus. The study of atoms and their subatomic particles is called atomic physics and has played a crucial role in the development of many important technologies. <h3 style="text-align: justify;">Magnetic Properties Of Atom</h3>Atoms have magnetic properties due to the presence of unpaired electrons in their outermost energy level, or valence shell. These unpaired electrons give rise to a magnetic moment, which is a measure of the atom's magnetic strength. The direction of the magnetic moment is determined by the orientation of the unpaired electrons' spins. The magnetic moment of an atom is a result of the combined magnetic moments of the unpaired electrons within it. In most cases, the magnetic moments of the individual unpaired electrons will cancel each other out, resulting in a net magnetic moment of zero. However, if the number of unpaired electrons is odd, the magnetic moments will not cancel out completely, resulting in a net magnetic moment. The magnitude of an atom's magnetic moment is determined by the number and arrangement of its unpaired electrons. Atoms with more unpaired electrons will have a larger magnetic moment, while atoms with fewer unpaired electrons will have a smaller magnetic moment. The arrangement of the unpaired electrons can also affect the magnitude of the magnetic moment. For example, if the unpaired electrons are arranged in a way that their magnetic moments are aligned, the overall magnetic moment of the atom will be stronger. Atoms can be classified as paramagnetic or diamagnetic based on their magnetic properties. Paramagnetic atoms have unpaired electrons and are attracted to a magnetic field, while diamagnetic atoms do not have unpaired electrons and are not attracted to a magnetic field. The magnetic properties of atoms can be used to understand the chemical behavior of elements and compounds. For example, paramagnetic atoms can be used to study the structures of molecules and how they interact with each other. The magnetic properties of atoms can also be used to understand the behavior of materials, such as how they respond to a magnetic field or how they can be used in magnetic storage devices. In conclusion, atoms have magnetic properties due to the presence of unpaired electrons in their outermost energy level. The magnitude of an atom's magnetic moment is determined by the number and arrangement of its unpaired electrons, and atoms can be classified as paramagnetic or diamagnetic based on their magnetic properties. The magnetic properties of atoms can be used to understand the chemical behavior of elements and compounds and the behavior of materials. <h3 style="text-align: justify;">Valency Of An Atom</h3>Valency is a measure of an atom's ability to combine with other atoms to form chemical compounds. It is determined by the number of electrons in the outermost energy level, or valence shell, of the atom. Atoms with a full valence shell are stable and are less likely to react with other atoms, while atoms with an incomplete valence shell are more reactive and are more likely to form chemical bonds with other atoms in order to achieve stability. The valency of an atom is related to its electron configuration, which is the arrangement of electrons in an atom. Atoms with a full valence shell have a stable electron configuration, while atoms with an incomplete valence shell are more reactive because they are seeking to fill their valence shell in order to achieve stability. The valency of an atom can be determined by the number of electrons in its valence shell and the number of electrons required to fill the valence shell. Atoms with a full valence shell have a valency of zero, while atoms with an incomplete valence shell have a valency equal to the number of electrons needed to fill the valence shell. The valency of an atom can also be determined by its position on the periodic table of elements. Elements in the same group of the periodic table have similar valency, as they have the same number of valence electrons. For example, the elements in Group 1 have a valency of 1, while the elements in Group 2 have a valency of 2. The valency of an atom plays a crucial role in determining its chemical behavior. Atoms with a high valency are more reactive and are more likely to form chemical bonds with other atoms in order to achieve stability. The valency of an atom is also important in determining the properties of chemical compounds, as it determines how the atoms are bonded together and how they will behave. In conclusion, valency is a measure of an atom's ability to combine with other atoms to form chemical compounds. It is determined by the number of electrons in the valence shell of the atom and is related to its electron configuration and position on the periodic table of elements. The valency of an atom plays a crucial role in determining its chemical behavior and the properties of chemical compounds.

Introduction To Atom | Magnetic Properties of Atom | Valency of Atom

Introduction To Atom Atoms are the basic units of matter and the defining structure of elements. The term "atom" comes from the Gr... Read More »

UV Spectrophotometer | Working principal of UV spectrometer | thetutee

نشرت بواسطة:thetutee.com August 23, 2022 في Chemistry لاتوجد تعليقات

<h2 style="text-align: justify;">UV SPECTROSCOPY</h2><div> </div>

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">Introduction</h3>

UV Spectroscopy is very widely used technique in labs and in
life science life department. Many different experiments to relay on the idea
of UV visible Spectroscopy but the first question is why we need this technique
than what this technique gives us the answer to that is in any situation we
need to find concentration of different substance of different molecule in
solution and that we can measure perfectly with UV spectrophotometry. In some
case also concentration of cell during the microbiology it also tells us the idea
of the two things the wavelength and frequency of that the electromagnetic wave
and the frequency of a wave. <o:p></o:p> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1GX1DezeTtuno_onjERIrjyfpsKd6MwJ1n8brZG0Wk175sf2fvqs6O5yM4AugBvF-6-KVT8vHRLn-cGP98p87q1b_2Grg8D05pTaYjjtOXwy1JtEGArhERD5q0qPnSjFLD4BbKzCFNjVjabEDM_D_LuXCzsUWMOdU6TXAMHcebz1YVUZCB5hpLe_i/s1024/UV%20spectrometer.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="1024" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1GX1DezeTtuno_onjERIrjyfpsKd6MwJ1n8brZG0Wk175sf2fvqs6O5yM4AugBvF-6-KVT8vHRLn-cGP98p87q1b_2Grg8D05pTaYjjtOXwy1JtEGArhERD5q0qPnSjFLD4BbKzCFNjVjabEDM_D_LuXCzsUWMOdU6TXAMHcebz1YVUZCB5hpLe_i/s320/UV%20spectrometer.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>

<o:p> </o:p>

More frequency means more energy and if something has high
frequency it will have a lesser or smaller wavelength. So, a very longer wavelength
wave will have less frequency and less energy. If we divided this UV visible
spectrum into the small part and fraction, we would find out that it is simply
ranging from 200 nm to 800 nm that's kind of the range of the UV-visible light.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

Although it can be extended to 10-20 nanometer in the wavelength.
From 200 to 400nm it is UV range and from 400 to 800nm it belongs to the
visible range that we usually use for the UV visible Spectroscopy. <o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

When we move towards x-ray, gamma ray the wavelength become
more smaller and frequency gets higher, and the energy will also be greater.
The visible light further can be sub divided into seven different colors. This
can be seen when a light ray passes through a water droplet or a prism. That’s
why we see a beautiful rainbow after rain. The colors of rainbow or the white
light has the following sub colors in ordered form:<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

1-   
Red<o:p></o:p>

2-   
Orange<o:p></o:p>

3-   
Yellow<o:p></o:p>

4-   
Green<o:p></o:p>

5-   
Blue <o:p></o:p>

6-   
Indigo<o:p></o:p>

7-   
violet<o:p></o:p>

If we look at the instrument the filament act as a light
source. It also has the separate unit known as the monochromator.   <o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

UV Spectroscopy is an analytical technique that measure the number
of different wavelengths of UV or visible light that are absorbed by or
transmitted through a sample in comparison to a or reference or blank sample.
Every sample has its own lambda max value which we can also find through a
graph. The UV can provide information on what is in the sample and the
concentration. <o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

Since this Spectroscopy technique works using the light,
let's first consider the properties of light. UV Spectroscopy refers to
absorption to absorption Spectroscopy or reflectance spectroscopy.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">What is Spectroscopy and how it is use?</h3>

Spectroscopy is the branch of science in which we study
about the interaction of light with the matter. UV Spectroscopy is the one of
the techniques used to measure how much a chemical reaction absorbs light. This
is done by measuring the intensity of light. It is referred to transmit
Spectroscopy in part of the ultraviolet and the full near to the visible region
of the electromagnetic spectrum. In UV Spectroscopy a sun light travel through
a solution in a cuvette with wavelength ranging between 180 and 1100nm. <o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

The sample transmit this UV or visible radiation in the
cuvette. Cuvette can be made up of quartz or any other substance. It should be
clean while using it, make sure to wash the cuvette with distilled water so
that you can observe a clear result. Make sure to test run water at the start
before putting a sample in the cuvette. The distilled water line which you get
on the computer will act as a standard for you to compare the results or we can
say is it will act as a baseline.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">Invention of UV Spectroscopy</h3>

In July 1941, it is invented by Arnold Beckman, founder of
his eponymous company, introduced his DU UV - vis spectrometer.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">Range of UV
Spectroscopy</h3>

The UV range extends from 100-400nm and the visible spectrum
ranges from 400-700nm. However, most spectrophotometers don not operate in the
deep UV range of 100-200nm, as light sources in this range are not economical
and difficult to operate.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">Uses of UV Spectroscopy</h3>

UV-Vis Spectroscopy is a quantitative technique used to
measure how much a chemical substance absorbs light. This is done by measuring
the intensity of light that passes through a sample with respect to the
intensity of light through a reference sample or blank. It is commonly used
technique in many areas of science ranging from bacterial culturing, drug
identification and nucleic acid purity unmixed and quantitation, to quality
control in the beverage industry and chemical research. Pharmaceutical
industries are the most common industries where UV spectrophotometer is being
used.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

It is a quantitative technique used to measure how much a
chemical substance absorbs light. This is done by measuring the intensity of light
that passes through a sample with respect to the intensity of light through blank
reference sample. UV spectroscopy is also used in semiconductor industry to
measure the thickness and optical properties of thin film on a wafer. <o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

UV spectrometers are used to measure the reflectance of
light and can be action. UV spectroscopy like fitter is a technique which is
useful in finding out the purity of the drug. Many molecules contain
chromophores which will absorb specific wavelength of ultraviolet. According to
the Beer Lambert Law the absorption of spectra produces from these sample of
given wavelength can be related directly to the concentrated to these sample. <o:p></o:p>

The equation of lamber-beer law is as follow:<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<v:shapetype coordsize="21600,21600" filled="f" id="_x0000_t75" o:preferrelative="t" o:spt="75" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" stroked="f">
 <v:stroke joinstyle="miter">
 <v:formulas>
 <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0">
 <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0">
 <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1">
 <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2">
 <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth">
 <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight">
 <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1">
 <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2">
 <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth">
 <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0">
 <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight">
 <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0">
 </v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:formulas>
 <v:path gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect" o:extrusionok="f">
 <o:lock aspectratio="t" v:ext="edit">
</o:lock></v:path></v:stroke></v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 24.75pt; width: 57.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
 <v:imagedata chromakey="white" o:title="" src="file:///C:/Users/HP/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape> where,<o:p></o:p>

A = Absorbance<o:p></o:p>

ℇ = Molar absorptivity<o:p></o:p>

B = path length<o:p></o:p>

C = concentration <o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">Principle of UV-Vis Spectroscopy</h3>

The principle of UV-Vis Spectroscopy is based on the
absorption of ultraviolet light or visible light by chemical compounds, which
result in the production of different spectra. Spectroscopy is based on the
interaction between light and matter. As a result of absorption of
electromagnetic radiation molecular change occur. These changes occur between
the electronic energy level. As molecule absorb energy, an energy is to change
of position from occupied orbital to an unoccupied orbital of greater potential
energy <o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">Instrumentation in UV Spectroscopy</h3>

I.  Light source<o:p></o:p>

II.   Monochromator<o:p></o:p>

III.    Detector<o:p></o:p>

IV.      Amplifiers<o:p></o:p>

V.     Recorder<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p><o:p> </o:p><o:p></o:p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhKwnfOKOorC6wM-93AFeTQvT-QoGkhHRAEmoGK7EyDdSaaP_P0LZt5O12YYPC1toKa11S9Sk24J1RGPxCwmYN1yJmRNmlPpZOyIxHSCITMRSQjw7ypuz_v3Jx7g3cA73sP9cCO-OX5ZogSwzBZIIHVsSKWD8A7pFzMwrKCP0gSUWeHexzc_j62aD_z/s1024/UV%20spectrometer%20(2).jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="1024" height="251" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhKwnfOKOorC6wM-93AFeTQvT-QoGkhHRAEmoGK7EyDdSaaP_P0LZt5O12YYPC1toKa11S9Sk24J1RGPxCwmYN1yJmRNmlPpZOyIxHSCITMRSQjw7ypuz_v3Jx7g3cA73sP9cCO-OX5ZogSwzBZIIHVsSKWD8A7pFzMwrKCP0gSUWeHexzc_j62aD_z/w377-h251/UV%20spectrometer%20(2).jpg" width="377" /></a></div>

<h4 style="text-align: justify;"> </h4><h3 style="text-align: justify;">Light source in UV
Spectroscopy</h3>

The basic important things are that light source which
passes polychromatic radiation to monochromator. we know light source as it
will have visible and UV range light. we will have different light bulbs as a
source of light depending upon the wavelength we need, and it is like a head
light of our motor bike. Mostly in experiments two light sources are used, for
ultraviolet light Deuterium is used and for visible light tungsten lamp is
used. <o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

There are many things which we should keep in mind while
using the source of light firstly, the output light should be uniform over a
specific wavelength secondly, it should be stable for a long period of time
thirdly, the usage should be long and lastly the light source should be
economical. Some of the light sources are listed below.<o:p></o:p>

i.           
Halogen Lamps<o:p></o:p>

ii.           
Deuterium Lamps<o:p></o:p>

iii.             Xenon Lamp (Xenon Arc Lamp)<o:p></o:p>

iv.            Xenon Flash Lamp<o:p></o:p>

v.           
Low-Pressure Mercury Lamp<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">Monochromator         
</h3>

Monochromators are used to break up large bands of
polychromatic light. The light source is separated by a monochromator to obtain
monochromatic light of certain wavelength, which is irradiated to the sample
solution in the sample chamber. It has three types.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

i.           
Filters<o:p></o:p>

ii.           
Prisms<o:p></o:p>

iii.           
Gratings<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

Prism monochromator is made up of quartz, fused silica,
both, and glass. The spectrophotometer has two types, single monochromator type
which has only one monochromator and second is double type monochromator which
has two monochromators, and you easily guess it by their name.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">Sample holder</h3>

It is device which is used as a sample holder and the sample
is kept here. UV spectrophotometer’s holder is made up of glass, Quartz, iron,
and bentonite. It is generally called as cuvette holder which is a customized
light measuring component intended to keep liquid transmission measurements as
accurate as possible. It keeps the sample in a stable position throughput the
process.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p></o:p>

Modern cuvette holders can additionally include a
temperature-controlled setting for testing how well a cuvette transmits light
under various heat conditions and in reaction to fiber optic. These light
measurement accessories are strong and adaptable, and they have a staggering
array of uses in the study of light measurement and the characterization of
materials.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">Detectors</h3>

Detector will detect the light signal which then will be
converted to the signal displayed on the device. The UV-Vis spectroscopy
apparatus employs a variety of detectors. The analysis needs to be
straightforward and inexpensive. Depending on the requirements, every detector
may be used to various scenarios and samples.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

The choice of
detectors is influenced by the volume of the sample that is present, the
analyte concentration, and the reaction mixture. In the case of
ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, detection should be carried out at a very
smaller sampling concentration. They ought to be smaller and of greater quality
as well.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

The ability of the normal eye to perceive fluctuations in
color makes it a useful tool for colorimetric equipment that match colors.
Although the human visual system achieved the intended function, the
examination was subject to personal judgment and perception, which made alternative
sensitive detection choices necessary. <o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

With the passage of time, electrical charge transfer
properties-based detectors were created. There are basically four types of
detectors in any spectrophotometer.<o:p></o:p>

Following is the type of detectors<o:p></o:p>

1)barrier layer cell<o:p></o:p>

2)Photo tube<o:p></o:p>

3) photomultiplier tube<o:p></o:p>

4) Thermocouple<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<h4 style="text-align: justify;">Amplifier and recorder</h4>

Amplifier: Amplifiers amplifies signal coming from detector <o:p></o:p>

Recorder:  Recorder
records them which is displayed on the information shown on a computer.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p><o:p> </o:p><o:p></o:p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVNcBS5YQ7RdS_tqGHd2L1g9kx-J5ArOgbYggoFwanAnjAkzcmKP1MUtQ2nIF7wBKsbioE1iF7NPcyu6rmAhsS4Hu-YeIY1xtXuImhCSxED1w4Y0RrHaX8P-PdYtQTLlhFyxAPKkS10oU59E9qVXfRkWEWPUzVdHNbvpBZeefOXSVoRZxPnkacZEu5/s1024/UV%20spectrometer%20(3).jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="1024" height="230" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVNcBS5YQ7RdS_tqGHd2L1g9kx-J5ArOgbYggoFwanAnjAkzcmKP1MUtQ2nIF7wBKsbioE1iF7NPcyu6rmAhsS4Hu-YeIY1xtXuImhCSxED1w4Y0RrHaX8P-PdYtQTLlhFyxAPKkS10oU59E9qVXfRkWEWPUzVdHNbvpBZeefOXSVoRZxPnkacZEu5/w346-h230/UV%20spectrometer%20(3).jpg" width="346" /></a></div> <o:p> </o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">Application of UV Spectroscopy</h3>

UV Spectroscopy is one of the best methods for to find out
impurities in organic molecule. Addition of the most extreme possible amount
can be observed due to the possible amount in the sample and can be compared
with that of raw material. By also measuring the absorbance of specific wavelength
the impurities can be detect.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

Some power of UV Spectroscopy makes it so great for many
application<o:p></o:p>

o  
This technique is non causing a very large amount
of damage which can allow the sample to be reused for further processing or
analysis.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

o  
Measurement can be performed very quickly.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

o  
Less user training is need as instrument is
easier to use and handle.<o:p></o:p>

o  
Only minimal processing is need for data
analysis.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

o  The instrument is not high price as it is easy
to need and to be able to use in  laboratory.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

o  
The application of UV Spectroscopy is enormous. The
following are the main field in which UV visible Spectroscopy is used<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

o  
DNA or RNA analysis<o:p></o:p>

o  
Pharmaceutical analysis<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

o  
Bacterial culture<o:p></o:p>

o  
Beverage analysis<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

o  
Environmental monitoring and control <o:p></o:p>

o  
Biotech <o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

o  
Life science<o:p></o:p>

o  
Gas and oil<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

o  
Geology<o:p></o:p>

o  
Metallurgy<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">Disadvantage of UV Spectroscopy</h3>

The main disadvantage of using UV spectrometer is the time.
It takes time to prepare to use one with UV visible spectrophotometer, set up
is key. It must be clear the area of any outside light electronic noise or
other outside. The operator of the spectrophotometer should be well trained, in
addition to that the system or the computer and the recorder should be
connected properly to get accurate results. If cuvette is not properly clean it
may affect the results. Spending a lot of time under UV light may harm your skin
as well as your eyes. <o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

The room where system operate should be a dark space and it
should not have any kind of vibration of any electronic or anything. Furthermore,
it can only analyze the molecules which contains chromophores. External and
internal factors such as pH, temperature, contaminants, and impurities can also
affect the results. We cannot analyze solid or a gas sample, and the sample
needs to in liquid form.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p></o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">Advantage of UV Spectroscopy</h3>

The biggest advantage for chemist and astronomers who use UV
visible spectrometer is the accuracy of the device. Even small UV visible
spectrometer can give extremely occur ate reading which is extremely important
when we are preparing chemical solution. In addition to that it is easy to use,
to handle and is easy to operate. We can easily buy it from the market at a
very low price and even small laboratories can afford it. <o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

It can easily cover the entire region of the UV-vis light
and can be used for the quantitative and the qualitative relationship. It can
also provide a derivative graph which is important in any research. It also can
be used for the degradation of the study of the degradation of the dyes and
drugs.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify;">Conclusion</h3>

The spectroscopy in the visible ultraviolet region. In a
very useful technique for qualitative studies related to characterization of
organic and inorganic compounds, in food material. In this context the
scientific community has used this technique more research area of food science
and technology sector, it’s application in quality laboratories of food
industries has been very important, because it satisfies both the scope and
public health problem. It allows quality verification of different product
widely compare and little around the world.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

UV Spectrophotometer | Working principal of UV spectrometer | thetutee

UV SPECTROSCOPY Introduction UV Spectroscopy is very widely used technique in labs and in life science life department. Many different... Read More »

Green Chemistry | Introduction | Principles | Applications | thetutee

نشرت بواسطة:thetutee.com June 30, 2022 في Chemistry لاتوجد تعليقات

<h1 style="text-align: left;">APPLICATION
OF GREEN CHEMISRTY IN PRINCIPLIE AGRICULTURE</h1>

<h2 style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">Introduction</h2>

Green
chemistry involves the architecture and development of product and processes
the attenuate or annihilate the use and bearing of chemicals and human health.
The principles of green chemistry associate the development of green catalysts
and use of non- toxic reagents. Green chemistry accents the use of reactions
improved atom ability, use of solvent free or environmentally benign recyclable
solvent system and use of renewable resources.<o:p></o:p>

Nowadays,
green chemistry plays a new paradigm in the field of agriculture. Acceptable agriculture
and green chemistry are both agent fields and intertwined. In last few years,
for acceptable production in agriculture use of renewable biomass resource
increase to achieve bio-based food products with low ampules, zero waste,
substantial social values and minimizing environmental impact. This article
provides a good insight about green chemistry principles in acceptable agriculture.<o:p></o:p>

Keywords:
Green chemistry, agriculture pesticides, acceptable agriculture, chemistry
dynamite.<o:p></o:p>

The
problems of poverty in developing countries increase the appeal of more
productive and industrialized abridgement, which cause the global and local environmental
pollution, and the non- sustainable use of natural resources. <o:p></o:p>

Environmental
pollution bluff, ranging from atmospheric pollution in cities, acid rain,
borough solid waste, deforestation and desertification, the reduction of ozone
layer and signs of climate change were overlooked. The idea of acceptable eco-
development was presented for the first time in 1987 in the report of the world
commission on Environment and Development of the United Nations.<o:p></o:p>

In
last few years, the production of synthetic pesticides was increasing, and the
modern agriculture methods produced major greenhouse gases e.g., discharge of
84% nitrous oxide (N20) annually in all over the world.<o:p></o:p>

The
conflicting impact of contagion in agrochemical fields through indirect or
direct baring of abnormal use of pesticides, effects the animals and human
health. Pesticides includes all chemical which are used to control or kin the badgered,
but these pesticides in food chain brace with biomagnifications and bioaccumulation
having adverse effects on entire animals and human life. To minimize these
harmful effects application of organic farming should be increased in place of
synthetic pesticides.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

These
pesticides also cause the contamination of ground water and led to eutrophication
of rivers and lake waters, and the movement of toxic chemical from surroundings
into an organism. There are some pesticides e.g., DDT, which are soluble and
acquire in blubbery tissues and causes biomagnifications and in food chain. <o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

Green
chemistry involves the design and development of product and processes that
minimize or eliminate the use and generation of chemical difficult to the environment
and human health. The principles if green chemistry associate the development
of green catalysts and use of non- toxic reagents. Green chemistry accentuates
the use of reaction improved atom ability, use of solvent free or
environmentally begin recyclable solvent system and use of renewable resources.<o:p></o:p> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPTPQgn-ATfCvMdGerYrDcJUdXtBYWq-0lYhj3jPRtr6pxzBH2cC-D7GzNxJMuDwE5_5jdi9rtPd7S66F34EpaWHdBMQkH-LEYQtzWGgN55MCV-q28V0FeTMUutufMQROc3oYCFHzEXXF2jgHrKYwvEvSXpHhUfnhg0oigVSHfVzhMBsIMNexcmfmU/s1024/GREEN%20CHEMISTRY.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="1024" height="249" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPTPQgn-ATfCvMdGerYrDcJUdXtBYWq-0lYhj3jPRtr6pxzBH2cC-D7GzNxJMuDwE5_5jdi9rtPd7S66F34EpaWHdBMQkH-LEYQtzWGgN55MCV-q28V0FeTMUutufMQROc3oYCFHzEXXF2jgHrKYwvEvSXpHhUfnhg0oigVSHfVzhMBsIMNexcmfmU/w374-h249/GREEN%20CHEMISTRY.png" width="374" /></a></div>

<o:p> </o:p>

<h2 style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">Green chemistry:</h2>

In 1998, Paul Anastas and
John C. Warner developed the 12 principles of green chemistry.

Green chemistry starts with
molecular level and after all indicating the most important environmentally
hurtful processes and products. In 2001, at university of Colorado, Boulder,
IUPAC CHEMRAWN XlV conference on green chemistry.<o:p></o:p>

Towards Environmentally
Benign processes and products, was organized and in this conference several
chemists discussed the effects of agricultural and industrial activities on
atmospheric chemistry. They advised “design -for - environment'' framework to
work with consumer’s and disbelieve the defense of foods and crops developed by
green methods for green agricultural practice. Nowadays, green chemistry plays
a new anomaly in the field of agriculture. <o:p></o:p>

In last few years, for
production in agriculture use of renewable biomass resources increases to
generate bio-based food products the low inputs, zero waste, substantial social
values and minimizing environmental impact. Sustainability of agriculture is
the basis area which desire green chemistry strategies in agrochemical field
for implanting the accurate use of pesticide and fertilizers.<o:p></o:p>

Green Principles Application
in Agriculture<o:p></o:p>

* Beginning with the
selection of renewable - non - toxic feedstocks.<o:p></o:p>

* The design of safe and
energy efficient synthetic procedures.<o:p></o:p>

* Largest consumption of all
materials into the product.<o:p></o:p>

* Generally durable - non-
toxic products function.<o:p></o:p>

* Ensuring the natural
degradability of all products and by - product at the end of life.<o:p></o:p>

* The principle of green
chemistry is especially relevant to the manufacturing and making of
agrichemicals due to their direct impact on human and environment health. However,
current agricultural practices are still based on comprehensive production
methods using unsustainable technologies developed during the ' green
revolution'. <o:p></o:p>

* As consumer focus shifts
towards establishing a sustainable and secure food accumulation, the
agrichemical industry will depend upon a second ' green revolution ' appropriate
green chemistry principles to continue providing products relevant agricultural
practices which will be safer and sounder.<o:p></o:p>

* The bio pesticides itself
has scalable and green technology which has direct implication on sustainable
agriculture for broad production. The work used for the preparation of bio
catalysis processes.<o:p></o:p>

*  Nowadays, the manufacture emphasizing the of conventional
solvents to green solvents to green solvents for worker safety in chemical
and  environmental protection. The
selection of right solvents has always increased the benefits to environment,
safer to user and improved awareness. Currently, the green solvents, represented
the around 10% market. In the last few years, laboratory synthesis and
manufacturing in industry replacing into catalyst free reaction on water and in
water.<o:p></o:p>

* Recently organic solvent
with high volatility and inherent toxicity were change by the toxic liquids
(ILs). Ionic liquids are organic solvents salts usually melt below 100c, high
thermal stability, nearly non - volatility under normal conditions, dissolve
non - polar and polar organic, inorganic compounds. For these reason, ionic
liquids called " designer solvents”.<o:p></o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">Further Discussion</h3>

Green chemistry seeking the
goal towards form profitability to the community prosperity and improving soil
quality by reducing the dependence use of non - renewable resources. Such as synthetic
fertilizers and resources and pesticides, minimizing the adverse effects on
water quality, wildlife, and safety. <o:p></o:p>

There are various
alternatives of chemical farming such as biological agriculture, organic farming,
natural forming, bio- dynamic agriculture. Bio- pesticides are organic in
nature, so these can be employed in farming for controlling the pests, insect,
weeds and for plants physiology and productivity and the percentage yield.<o:p></o:p>

These bio pesticides are bio- degradable to
the environments. Therefore, for sustainable developments, shift the
agricultural farming natural farming, bio- dynamic agriculture, ecological
agriculture. Bio- pesticides are organic in nature, so these can be organic in
nature, so these can be employed in farming for controlling the pests, insects,
weeds and for sustainable developments, shift the agriculture forming into
green chemistry manufacturing processes, use of crop protection and production
and develop green agrochemicals. <o:p></o:p>

Thus, sustainable
agriculture and green chemistry are both revolutionary fields and intertwined.
for this green chemist needs that the farming used green technology for sustainable
agriculture and farmers needs safe and green agricultural inputs. The biocatalyst
has been used increasingly in agrochemicals, pharmaceuticals and food
industries, these can help in reducing the waste and improving the yield of
products.<o:p></o:p>

The population of world
stands at 7 billion and increase up to 9.3 billion by 2050. This will require
food production to be increased by 70% to meet the demand. Therefore, it is
necessary to increases the crop productivity, reduced preharvest loss and post-harvest
lost pest attack by employing biochemical processes with green techniques. The
agrochemical industries have carrying major growth in futures. The industry,
regulatory bodies, government, and academia can build a collaborative work together
and employs their ideas of green chemistry practices. <o:p></o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">Conclusion</h3>

There are mainly three
aspects by which green chemistry connects with sustainable agriculture. First,
the principle of green chemistry recommended the use of bio- base material which
are renewable such as agricultural waste products. Chemists should emphasize
the work on developing the bio pesticides, bio - fertilizers and biocatalysts
for transforming the agriculture material into high value products and
enhancing their production and protection. <o:p></o:p>

Secondary, use of green
chemistry in site remediation by interaction with agriculture. In a traditional
farming, farmers do not know how to deal with valuable tool, leave some
unwanted chemicals which contaminated the environment (in soil, air, and water).
Green chemists at Carnegie Mellon university have investigated the TAML catalysts.
This green catalyst is safe to remove the special chemicals including pesticides,
from water. Thus, green chemists to help the farmers how to tackle with contamination,
removing pollutant, unwanted chemicals and manage the use of recycled water.<o:p></o:p>

At last, green chemistry results,
the new green inputs for sustainable agriculture productions and protections.
Where every habitat is respected so that the food chain does not disturb.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

Green Chemistry | Introduction | Principles | Applications | thetutee

APPLICATION OF GREEN CHEMISRTY IN PRINCIPLIE AGRICULTURE Introduction Green chemistry involves the architecture and development of pro... Read More »

Physical Properties Of Matter | Melting Point | Boiling Point | Vapor pressure | Heat Capacity | thetutee

نشرت بواسطة:thetutee.com June 28, 2022 في Chemistry لاتوجد تعليقات

<h2 style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">Introduction</h2>

<h3 style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">Physical properties </h3><div> </div><div> </div>

<h3 style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">Melting point</h3><div> </div>

The melting point is the temperature at which a substance changes
from a solid to a liquid is called the melting point.The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which it
changes state from solid to liquid.

At the melting point, the
solid and liquid phases exist in equilibrium. The melting point of a substance
depends on pressure and is usually specified at a standard pressure such as 1
atmosphere or 100 kpa. It is difficult, though, to find a melting point,
usually, chemists can only obtain a melting range of a 2-3C accuracy. This is
usually sufficient for most uses of the melting point. <o:p></o:p> The temperature of the reverse change from a liquid to a solid is
referred to as the freezing point or crystallization point. Because of the
ability of some substances to supercool, the freezing point is not considered a
characteristic property of a substance.

<o:p> </o:p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhV-7FnJsM0kWDSqRN_hGFEsbLJycJQ4yWaENVWABmPHwaxk8ph5VLML4ATWcFZgPuFIe9HJWWKhcqM7xIEhdPtAaWZSfnTd0LXuU82QOFq00Wg_UmGNjupifA_iln4asQujOZq3xHLGjIiTpmwwG2ki59WZzV6VW8QkBJVkrFK0lma4oqIy3AKFj9/s1024/boiling%20point.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="1024" height="254" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhV-7FnJsM0kWDSqRN_hGFEsbLJycJQ4yWaENVWABmPHwaxk8ph5VLML4ATWcFZgPuFIe9HJWWKhcqM7xIEhdPtAaWZSfnTd0LXuU82QOFq00Wg_UmGNjupifA_iln4asQujOZq3xHLGjIiTpmwwG2ki59WZzV6VW8QkBJVkrFK0lma4oqIy3AKFj9/w381-h254/boiling%20point.png" width="381" /></a></div>

Melting point range<o:p></o:p>

Span of temperatures from the point at which the crystals first
are liquefied to the point at which the entire sample is liquid.

*The melting point of ice is 0C. The melting point of a solid is
the same as the freezing point of the liquid. At that temperature, the solid
and liquid states of the substance are in equilibrium. For water, this equilibrium occurs at 0C.

Properties of melting point<o:p></o:p>

Factors affecting melting point<o:p></o:p>

The boiling is the temperature at which a substance changes from
a liquid to a gas. The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the
vapour pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure of the
liquid's environment. At this temperature, the liquid is converted into a
vapour.

The boiling point of the liquid depends upon the pressure of the
surrounding. If a liquid is at high pressure, it has a higher boiling point. The normal boiling point or atmospheric boiling point of a liquid
is the special case in which the vapour pressure of the liquid equals the
defined atmospheric pressure at sea level one atmosphere.

The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapour pressure
of a chemical equals atmospheric pressure. Simply put, it measures the
temperature at which a chemical boil. Same to melting point a higher boiling
point indicates greater intermolecular forces and therefore less vapour
pressure.<o:p></o:p>

How does boiling point occur?<o:p></o:p>

When atoms or molecules or liquid can spread out enough to change
from a liquid phase to a gaseous phase bubbles form and boiling occurs. The boiling point is the temperature at which boiling occurs for
a specific liquid. For example, the boiling point is 100C at a pressure of 1atm. The
boiling point depends on temperature, atmospheric pressure, and vapour
pressure.

The bubbles in a boiling liquid are made up of molecules of the
liquid which have gained enough energy to change to the gaseous phase.<o:p></o:p>

The boiling point of milk is about 212F, so it is never actually
brought to a boil during the pasteurization process.

Factors affecting the boiling point<o:p></o:p>

Intermolecular bonds: when we consider other liquids more factors
help to determine the boiling point.<o:p></o:p>

The higher the intermolecular forces between the liquid particles,
the harder it is for it to escape into the vapour phase, I.e., you need more
energy to convert it from liquid to the vapour phase and the higher its boiling
point.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p><o:p> </o:p>

<h3 style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">Vapor pressure</h3>

Vapor pressure or equilibrium vapour pressure is defined as the
pressure exerted by a vapour in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phase
(solid or liquid) at a given temperature in a closed system. The equilibrium
vapour pressure is an indication of a liquid's evaporation rate. It relates to
the tendency of particles to escape from the liquid or a solid. A substance
with a high vapour pressure at normal temperature is often referred to as
volatile. <o:p></o:p>

The pressure exhibited by vapour present above a liquid surface is
known as vapour pressure. As the temperature of liquid increases the kinetic
energy of its molecules also increases. As the kinetic energy of molecules
increases, the number of molecules transitioning into a vapour also increases.
thereby increasing the vapour pressure.<o:p></o:p>

Vapor pressure is nothing but the tendency of particles to escape
from the liquid or a solid. At normal temperatures substance with a high vapour pressure is
often referred to volatile. With the increase in the temperature, the vapour pressure becomes
sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and lift the liquid to form vapour
bubbles.

Lowering of vapour pressure is defined as the difference between vapour pressures of pure solvent and the
vapour pressure of solvent from solution is called lowering of vapour pressure.

Humid Air: one of the best examples of vapour pressure in real
life is the relative humidity experienced by a person in a particular area.<o:p></o:p>

Vapor pressure depends on temperature and nothing else. The
vapour pressure of a liquid does not depend on the amount of the liquid in the
container, be it one liter or thirty liters, at the same temperature, both
samples will have the same vapour pressure.<o:p></o:p>

Vapor pressure has an exponential relationship with temperature
and always increase as temperature increase. When a liquid is boiling its vapour pressure is equal to the
external pressure. For example: as the water boils at sea level, its vapour
pressure is 1atmosphere because the external pressure is also 1atmosphere.

Vapor pressure, related to the boiling point and heat of
vaporization, is the most important characteristic in the application of fats
to fried food preparation. Triglycerides have extremely low vapour pressures, so
evaporation does not occur.

* The vapour pressure of a liquid is the point at which
equilibrium pressure is reached in a close container between molecules Leaving
the liquid and going into the gaseous phase and molecules Leaving the gaseous
phase and entering the liquid phase.<o:p></o:p>

Ether has the highest vapour pressure at any temperature. The reason for its high vapour pressure is that the attractions
are less between ether molecules than between water and alcohol molecules.

Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a physical property of
matter defined as the amount of heat to be supplied to an object to produce a
unit change in its temperature. The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin. Heat capacity is an extensive property. The corresponding
intensive property is the specific heat capacity found by dividing the heat
capacity of an object by its mass.

Dividing the heat capacity by the amount of substance in moles
yields its molar heat capacity. The volumetric heat capacity measures the heat capacity per
volume. In architecture and civil engineering, the heat capacity of a
building is often referred to as its thermal mass.

* Wilt the increase in the speed of the molecules, we would see
the temperature rise of the substance.<o:p></o:p>

* Specific heat capacity is defined as the amount of energy needed
to raise the temperature of 1kg of the substance by 1C or 1k.<o:p></o:p>

the temperature through 1C keeping the volume of the system
constant is called heat capacity at constant volume.<o:p></o:p>

* When we heat a pot of water on the stove, the pot heats up
faster we are putting the same amount of heat on both substances the pot
responds quicker than the water because water has a high heat capacity. <o:p></o:p>

* It has no shape, no mass, no color, no odor, no volume, and no
weight. It is an invisible form of energy.<o:p></o:p>

* The presence of warmth is left only through its effect on
matter. It might be transferred from one body to another<o:p></o:p>

* Heat capacity is related to the substance's ability to retain
heat and the rate at which it will heat up or cool. For example, a substance
with a low heat capacity such as an iron will heat and cool quickly while a
substance with a high heat capacity, such as water, heats and cool slowly.<o:p></o:p>

* Specific heat capacity, thermal expansion, heat conduction,
thermal radiation and thermoelectric force are all aspects of thermal
performance.<o:p></o:p>

* Heat capacity or specific heat capacity is the amount of heat
per unit mass required to raise the temperature.<o:p></o:p>

* Specific heat is useful in determining the processing the
temperature and amount of heat necessary for processing and can be useful in
differentiating between two polymeric composites.<o:p></o:p>

* The capability of a molecule to absorb heat energy is called
heat capacity. Waters' high heat capacity is a property caused by hydrogen
bonding among water molecules.<o:p></o:p>

* Gold is a heavy metal that has a very low heat capacity. Radon
also has a very high molecular weight and heat capacity. These of highest and
lowest of all elements.<o:p></o:p>

* The exact value of the specific heat capacity of water is 4182
J/kgc. Now water is quite commonly occurring and a vital substance in our life
therefore there is a special way to identify the total amount of heat energy
needed to raise one gram of water by a calorie.<o:p></o:p>

* Many properties of substances vary with temperature, and so does
heat capacity. On a deeper level as we raise the temperature and more degrees
of freedom and unfreeze, so the heat capacity grows.<o:p></o:p>

* For a monoatomic substance where there is no motion
corresponding to the rotation of atoms around each other the heat capacity of
the liquid is only very slightly higher than that of the solid.<o:p></o:p>

* Molar heat capacity or specific heat capacity is the amount of
heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1mole of a substance. In the
SI unit molar heat capacity is the amount of heat in joules required to raise 1
mole of a substance 1 kelvin.<o:p></o:p>

<o:p> </o:p>

Physical Properties Of Matter | Melting Point | Boiling Point | Vapor pressure | Heat Capacity | thetutee

Introduction Physical properties · Melting point · Boiling point · Vapor pressure · Heat capacity ... Read More »